In The Late 1900s, How Did Agriculture Change In The South?
History of Agronomics
Background
Agriculture, the cultivation of nutrient and appurtenances through farming, produces the vast majority of the world's nutrient supply. Information technology is idea to accept been proficient sporadically for the past xiii,000 years,one and widely established for only 7,000 years.2 In the long view of human history, this is only a wink in the pan compared to the near 200,000 years our ancestors spent gathering, hunting, and scavenging in the wild. During its brief history, agronomics has radically transformed human societies and fueled a global population that has grown from 4 meg to 7 billion since 10,000 BCE, and is notwithstanding growing.3
The road to the present has not been smooth. Resource deposition, rapid population growth, disease, changing climates, and other forces have periodically crippled nutrient supplies, with the poor bearing the brunt of famine. We still face up many of the aforementioned challenges as our ancestors, in add-on to new and even greater threats. To successfully navigate an uncertain future, we tin begin by learning from the past.
Dawn of agriculture
Left to right: Gingerbread plum (mobola), baobab seed, carissa fruit.
These wild foods, native to Africa, may resemble the fruits, nuts, and seeds that nourished our hunter-gatherer ancestors. There is growing interest in cultivating these "lost" crops on a larger calibration—the carissa fruit tastes a little like cranberry and could someday become only as popular.12
Photo credits, left to right: National Academies Press;12 Ton Rulkens, Creative Commons CC BY-SA two.0; Forest & Kim Starr, Creative Eatables CC Past 3.0. All images cropped from originals.
Fried insect pupae.
While the bequeathed hunt for wildlife is often depicted equally an epic conflict against woolly mammoths, early humans too took to foraging for humble insects. Today, some traditional cultures get as much as 20 percent of their calories from insects.7 Edible insects take tremendous potential as a healthy and more sustainable culling to red meat and poultry.13,14
Photo credit: Steven One thousand. Johnson, 2009. Artistic Commons CC By-SA 3.0.
The San are among the commencement people to accept lived in southern Africa, and are i of the few societies that still follow a hunter-gatherer nutrition. To sustain their lifestyle, San typically spend 12 to 19 hours per week gathering food from the wild—what many might consider a life of leisure. When one San person was asked why he hadn't adopted farming, he replied, "Why should nosotros, when there are then many mongongo nuts in the globe?"fifteen
Photo credit: Dietmar Temps, 2010. Creative Commons CC BY-NC-SA two.0.
Click images for captions
Paleoanthropologists take estimated that the earliest fossil show of Human sapiens—anatomically modern humans—is roughly 196,000 years old.4 For the vast majority of the time since our species' arrival on the evolutionary scene, nosotros acquired nutrient by gathering it from the wild.1,5 Wild plant-based foods and fungi were important staples in the paleolithic diet, including the wild ancestors of some species that are widely cultivated today.6 While the bequeathed hunt for wild fauna is often depicted equally an epic conflict against woolly mammoths, woolly rhinos, behemothic elk, and other prehistoric megafauna, early on humans as well took to foraging for humble insectsvii and scavenging the remains of expressionless animals.8
From as early as 11,000 BCE, people began a gradual transition away from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle toward cultivating crops and raising animals for nutrient. The shift to agriculture is believed to have occurred independently in several parts of the world, including northern China, Central America, and the Fertile Crescent, a region in the Middle Eastward that cradled some of the earliest civilizations.1By 6000 BCE, nigh of the farm animals we are familiar with today had been domesticated.1 Past 5000 BCE, agriculture was adept in every major continent except Australia.ii
Why did people give upwardly hunting and gathering for farming? There are many plausible reasons, all of which probable played some role at different times and beyond dissimilar parts of the world:
- Changes in climate may take made it likewise cold or also dry to rely on wild food sources.ane
- Greater population density may have demanded more nutrient than could exist harvested from the wild, and farming provided more food per acre, even if it did require more time and energy.1,9
- Overhunting may have helped push button woolly mammoths and other megafauna to extinction.10
- Changing applied science, such as domesticated seeds, would have fabricated agriculture a more viable lifestyle.5,11
Dawn of civilizations
An ox-fatigued plow prepares a rice paddy field in Vietnam.
The turn and the various improvements upon its design were innovations that transformed human being history, assuasive farmers to cultivate land with a fraction of the labor they once used. Pulled by animals or tractors, plows are used to turn over the pinnacle layer of soil, helping destroy weeds, coffin residues from previous crops, bring nutrients and moisture to the surface, and loosen soil earlier planting.
Photo credit: Thomas Schoch, 2005. Artistic CommonsCC By-SA two.v.
Grave sleeping room of an Egyptian public official, circa 1250 BCE.
The plow is believed to have been used equally early as 4,000 years ago in ancient Egypt. Although it brought tremendous gains in short-term productivity, it has also been a major contributor to soil erosion. The loss of fertile topsoil has played a function in the decline of numerous civilizations.17
Photo: public domain.
Click images for captions
For better or for worse, agriculture was a driving force backside the growth of civilizations.
Farming probably involved more work than hunting and gathering, only information technology is thought to have provided 10 to 100 times more calories per acre.v More abundant food supplies could support denser populations, and farming tied people to their land. Small settlements grew into towns, and towns grew into cities.i
Agriculture produced enough food that people became complimentary to pursue interests other than worrying most what they were going to eat that day. Those who didn't need to be farmers took on roles as soldiers, priests, administrators, artists, and scholars. As early civilizations began to accept shape, political and religious leaders rose up to rule them, creating classes of "haves" and "take-nots." Whereas hunter-gatherer societies generally viewed resources equally belonging to everyone, agriculture led to a organisation of ownership over land, nutrient, and currency that was not (and is still not) equitably distributed amongst the people.1,16
Some have questioned whether moving abroad from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle was in humanity's all-time interests, pointing to problems of social inequality, malnutrition, and armed services conflict that followed the adoption of farming.1,5 One prominent scientist has even called agronomics the "worst fault in the history of the human race."fifteen That may be, but given the size and density of human populations today, returning to a paleolithic lifestyle is not a practical option. Hunting, gathering, and farming, all the same, can complement one another in means that provide people with a more varied and abundant food supply. People still harvest aquatic plants and animals from the sea, for example, and fifty-fifty urban dwellers might find edible berries, greens, and mushrooms in their local park.
Limits to growth
Depleted farmland and a changing climate set the stage for periodic famines throughout much of Europe from 1300 to 1850.22 This print, titled Dance of Death, conveys the fragility of life during this period.
Image attributed to Michael Wolgemut, 1493. Public domain.
Click images for captions
In the history of civilization … the plowshare has been far more subversive than the sword.
– Daniel Hilleleighteen
Agriculture may have made civilizations possible, just it has never been a safeguard confronting their plummet. Throughout history, increases in agricultural productivity competed against population growth, resources degradation, droughts, changing climates, and other forces that periodically bedridden food supplies, with the poor bearing the brunt of dearth.
Similar many of their modern counterparts, early farmers often worked state in ways that depleted its fertility. Technological innovations like irrigation (circa 6000 BCE) and the plow (circa 3000 BCE) brought enormous gains in productivity, but when used irresponsibly they degraded soil—the very foundation that makes agriculture possible.19,20 By the beginning of the Common Era, Roman farmers had degraded their soil to the indicate where they could no longer grow enough nutrient and had to rely on imports from distant Arab republic of egypt. Rome's eventual turn down is one of many cautionary tales virtually the importance of sustainable agronomics.ane
By 1798, economist Thomas Malthus warned that unchecked population growth would outpace nutrient production, setting the stage for widespread starvation.21 History is no stranger to this scenario—depleted farmland and changing climates ready the stage for periodic famines throughout much of Europe from 1300 to 1850.1,22 Malthus' critics, meanwhile, argued (and nevertheless argue) that scientific innovation would go along famine at bay past e'er finding ways to increase food production. Although his predictions accept not played out exactly equally he described, Malthus' piece of work reminds us that the Globe has express capacity to support human evolution.
The population boom
World population, ten,000 BCE to 2000 CE.
In 1798, economist Thomas Malthus warned that unchecked population growth would outpace food production, setting the stage for widespread starvation.21 What has kept Malthus' scenario at bay? Synthetic fertilizers, starting time introduced in the early 1900s, have been credited with feeding the lion's share of the global population as it grew from 1.six billion to six billion over the 20th century.27
Application of anhydrous ammonia (synthetic nitrogen) fertilizer at planting time on an Iowa farm.
Synthetic fertilizers are manufactured using a technique that transforms nitrogen in the atmosphere into a grade that tin be applied to crops (ammonia). These chemicals have dramatically increased short-term crop yields, though not without consequences. The heavy utilise of synthetic fertilizers has become a hallmark of industrial agriculture.
Photograph credit: Lynn Betts, USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service.
Freight train carrying grain across Washington land.
Beyond synthetic fertilizers, other innovations in nutrient product and distribution helped food supplies proceed pace with population growth. Expanded railways, aircraft canals, and new machinery for storing and moving grain made it easier to transport food to where it was most needed.25 Improvements in refrigerated transport, meanwhile, immune farmers to ship perishable food over greater distances.26
Photograph credit: David Gubler. Creative EatablesCC By-SA 3.0.
Click images for captions
From 1900 to 2011, the global population grew from 1.six billion to vii billion.23 Despite such explosive growth, the world's farmers produced plenty calories in 2012 to feed the entire population, plus an boosted 1.6 billion people.24 Hunger remains a global crisis, largely because those calories are not evenly distributed across the population, and much of the world's nutrient supply is never eaten. However, the sheer book of production dwarfs that of before generations. What has made such unprecedented abundance possible?
Innovations in food product and distribution have thus far helped food supplies continue footstep with population growth. Crops ethnic to the Americas, such equally corn, sweet potatoes, and cassava, spread across the globe. The nutrients provided by these prolific crops helped prevent malnutrition, supporting a widespread increase in population over the 18th century.20 Expanded railways, aircraft canals, and new machinery for storing and moving grain helped the U.S. get a major exporter of surplus wheat and corn, supplying much of Europe during times of scarcity overseas.25 Improvements in refrigerated transport allowed farmers to ship perishable food over greater distances.26
Of all the innovations in agriculture, arguably none has been more influential than constructed fertilizers—chemicals manufactured using a technique that transforms nitrogen in the atmosphere into a class that can exist applied to crops (ammonia). Start introduced in the early 1900s, synthetic fertilizers dramatically increased crop yields (though not without consequences), and have been credited with providing the lion's share of the world's food over the 20th century.27 The utilize of these and other chemicals has go a hallmark of industrial agriculture.
Resource
The post-obit listing of suggested resources is intended every bit a starting point for further exploration, and is not in whatsoever way comprehensive. Some materials may non reflect the views of the Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future.
For teachers
- Industrialization of Agronomics (lesson programme). FoodSpan. The Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Future.
- Introduction to the Usa Food System: Public Health, Environment, and Disinterestedness (textbook). Neff RN (editor). Johns Hopkins Center for a Livable Futurity. 2014.
Articles
- Foodies Unite: Insects Should Exist More Food Than Fad. Emma Bryce. The Guardian. 2014.
- Hunter-Gatherer Energetics and Human Obesity (open access). Pontzer H, Raichlen DA, et al. PLOS One. 2012.
- Are Malthus's Predicted 1798 Food Shortages Coming True? Jeffrey Sachs. Scientific American. 2008.
- The Worst Fault in the History of the Homo Race. Jared Diamond. Discover Magazine. 1999.
Books
- Refrigeration Nation: A History of Water ice, Appliances, and Enterprise in America. Jonathan Rees. 2013.
- Fresh: A Perishable History. Susanne Freidberg. 2009.
- Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations. David Montgomery. 2008.
- The World's Greatest Set up: A History of Nitrogen and Agriculture. G. J. Leigh. 2004.
References
ane. Montgomery D. Clay: The Erosion of Civilizations. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press; 2008.
two. Bulliet RW, Crossley PK, Headrick DR, Johnson LL, Hirsch SW. The Globe and Its Peoples: A Global History, Volume I. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin; 2008.
3. Kremer One thousand. Population Growth and Technological Change: One Meg B.C. to 1990. Q J Econ. 1993;108(three):681-716.
four. Trinkaus Due east. Early Modern Humans. Annu Rev Anthropol. 2005;34(1):207-230.
5. Diamond J. Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York, New York: Due west. West. Norton and Company; 1999.
vi. Diamond J. Evolution, consequences and future of plant and animate being domestication. Nature. 2002;418(6898):700-707.
7. Raubenheimer D, Rothman JM, Pontzer H, Simpson SJ. Macronutrient contributions of insects to the diets of hunter-gatherers: A geometric assay. J Hum Evol. 2014;71:lxx-76.
8. Moleón Thousand, Sánchez-Zapata JA, Margalida A, Carrete Chiliad, Owen-Smith Northward, Donázar JA. Humans and Scavengers: The Evolution of Interactions and Ecosystem Services. Bioscience. 2014.
ix. Vasey D. An Ecological History of Agriculture: x,000 B.C. - A.D. 10,000. Ames, Iowa: Iowa Land Academy Press; 1992.
10. Stuart AJ, Sulerzhitsky LD, Orlova LA, Kuzmin Y V., Lister AM. The latest woolly mammoths (Mammuthus primigenius Blumenbach) in Europe and Asia: A review of the current prove. Quat Sci Rev. 2002;21(14-15):1559-1569.
11. Dow G, Olewiler N, Reed C. The Transition to Agriculture: Climate Reversals, Population Density, and Technical Change. Simon Fraser University; 2005.
12. National Research Council. Lost Crops of Africa. Washington D.C.: The National Academies Press; 2008.
thirteen. van Huis A. Potential of Insects as Food and Feed in Assuring Food Security. Annu Rev Entomol. 2011;58(i).
xiv. Premalatha M, Abbasi T, Abbasi T, Abbasi SA. Free energy-efficient food product to reduce global warming and ecodegradation: The utilise of edible insects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2011;fifteen(9):4357-4360.
15. Diamond J. The Worst Mistake in the History of the Human Race. Discov Magazine. 1987:64-66.
xvi. Toll TD. Social Inequality at the Foundations of Agronomics. In: Price TD, Feinman Thou, eds. Foundations of Social Inequality. New York: Platinum Press; 1995.
17. Pryor LF. The invention of the plow. Comp Stud Soc Hist. 1985;27(iv).
18. Hillel D. Out of the Earth: Civilization and the Life of the Soil. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press; 1991.
19. Montgomery D. Dirt: The Erosion of Civilizations. Berkeley and Los Angeles: Academy of California Printing; 2008.
20. Cohen JE. People control the growth of nonhuman populations. In: How Many People Can the World Support?. New York and London: W. Due west. Norton and Company; 1995.
21. Malthus TR. An Essay on the Principle of Population, Volume one.; 1798.
22. Appleby AB. Epidemics and Famine in the Little Ice Age. J Interdiscip Hist. 2013;10(4).
23. Cohen JE. How Many People Can the Earth Support? New York and London: W. W. Norton and Company; 1995.
24. U.N. Nutrient & Agriculture Organisation. FAOSTAT. 2013. http://faostat3.fao.org/.
25. Fornari HD. U.S. Grain Exports: A Bicentennial Overview. Agric Hist. 1976;50(1):137-150.
26. Rees J. Refrigeration Nation: A History of Water ice, Appliances, and Enterprise in America. Johns Hopkins University Press; 2013.
27. Smil V. Enriching the Globe: Fritz Haber, Carl Bosch, and the Transformation of World Nutrient Production. Cambridge, MA: MIT Printing; 2001.
Source: https://www.foodsystemprimer.org/food-production/history-of-agriculture/
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